Learning, Psychology of

Two groups of rats received training and testing in learning
situations designed to induce perseveration. One task involved discrimination
training on one bar of a two-bar Skinner box and a
subsequent shift of reinforcement to the opposite bar. The second
task was a maze-learning one in which the training route was blocked
after 40 trials at a point just before the entrance to the goal box.
Thereafter, access to the goal box was possible only through a shorter,
but not previously reinforced route. The third task involved escape
training through one door of a four-door shock compartment. After 40
trials, the training door was locked and S was permitted to escape
shock only through one of the three previously-locked doors. In each
of the three tasks, indices of initial learning and perseveration were
selected, and within-subject comparisons were made for both initial
learning and perseveration across tasks. Within each task there was
a comparison of the initial learning measures to those used to define
perseveration. Finally, one of the groups was given conditioning and
extinction sessions in a single-bar Skinner box. The extinction
measure was compared with perseveration measures in the other tasks.
Four hypotheses were stated. These were that between tasks perseverative
measures would be positively related; that between tasks
initial learning measures would be positively related; that within each
task initial learning and perseveration would be neeatively related;
and finally that extinction in the single-bar Skinner box would have a positive relationship to measures of perseveration in the other tasks.
Only the last two hypotheses were supported and this support was not
uncontradicted. Also~ in the case of the extinction-perseveration
comparisons, none of the supporting evidence reached significance at
the .05 level of confidence.

Twenty 100 day old male rats were trained to behavioral criterion in a CER paradigm. Two shock levels (.1 and .2 ma) were employed to establish these criteria. Half of the Ss reached medium suppression (suppression ratios between .39 and .11) of a bar pressing response; half achieved high suppression (suppression ratios less than .10). The animals were subsequently exposed to 15 daily sessions of FI training utilizing a head, panel pressing response for food. Five of the medium suppression group and five of the high suppression group were exposed to the conditioned suppression CS (a light) during the FI acquisition periods . The remaining rats underwent FI training in the absence of the CS. An Index of Curvature was employed to measure each FI period record and to indicate the degree of acquisition of FI scalloping. Analysis of variance for the four groups revealed only the progression over days to be a significant source of variation. Analysis of linear trend indicated a strong linearity in the variance over 15 days for all groups, but revealed no clear differences between the groups. Some tendencies indicate a slight superiority in acquisition by the medium suppression group which was exposed to the CS during FI training. The high suppression group which was exposed to the light was noticeably inferior in FI discrimination. These results possibly demonstrate an "arousal- interference" mechanism for the CER, but the data do not support the conclusion that the conditioned suppression signal (CS) has a differential effect on subsequent acquisition of an unrelated temporal discrimination. A history of shook treatment, or of CER training, may be responsible, however, for the overall poor acquisition of FI scalloping that was demonstrated by all four groups in this study.

Levels of self-directed learning readiness, strategic thinking and leader
effectiveness in nonprofit directors were obtained from a sample of YMCA
directors who responded to an online survey. The resulting data were analyzed
to determine if correlations between the measures were observed and if the
relationships were moderated by employment, geographic or demographic
variables.
Self-directed learning readiness and strategic thinking were highly
correlated. Analysis of the questionnaires from 471 respondents demonstrated
that the correlations between self-directed learning readiness and strategic
thinking were robust (r = .58, p < .001 ). Leader effectiveness was found to
correlate with these two constructs at identical and significant levels (r = .1 0,
p < .05). These correlations present evidence of positive relationships between self-directed learning levels, strategic thinking levels and leader effectiveness.
Correlations were also found for self-directed learning readiness and each
of the three subscales of strategic thinking, reframing, reflecting and systems
thinking, and the leader effectiveness measure; and for the reframing subscale of
strategic thinking with leader effectiveness. Responses to open-ended questions
reflected the use of self-directed learning strategies and strategic thinking by the
sample in preparing for challenges in education and leadership.
Correlations between strategic thinking and leader effectiveness were
moderated by ethnicity. Levels of correlation between self-directed learning
readiness and strategic thinking were moderated by the variables of years of
AYP membership and number of branches supervised, the level of performance
rating desired, and years of similar employment.
The YMCA directors in this study were determined to be effective leaders
who used strategic thinking and self-directed learning strategies to meet the
demands of their leadership roles.
The results indicate that individuals who exhibit self-directed learning
tendencies can be expected to use strategic thinking strategies; that those who
are strategic thinkers reflect self-directed learning behavior; and that leader
effectiveness is supported by the possession of strategic thinking and selfdirected
learning skills.

The purpose of this study is to identify the relationship of Social Cognitive Career
Theory, student engagement, and academic outcomes of community college students
emolled in developmental courses over one academic year. Through the combined use of
Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) and Student Engagement Theory, the researcher
seeks to determine whether there are significant relationships between non-academic
factors and academic success. An online version of the Community College Survey of
Student Engagement in combination with a SCCT instrument was completed by 936
students. The collection of data involved a web based database program. An analysis of
the data included descriptive and correlational methods to examine these relationships.
The results of the study revealed that neither SCCT, nor engagement factors
contributed to the students' grade point average (GPA) and persistence. Additionally, when moderated by contextual factors, SCCT and Engagement demonstrated no
influence on students' final GPA and persistence during the period of study. The data
provided no evidence for an academic outcome predictive model involving SCCT,
engagement or contextual factors for community college developmental students.

The purpose of this grounded theory study was to explore the selfdevelopment
of women executives of philanthropic organizations to determine
their approaches to learning for leading. Women occupy 1.4% to 53% of the
executive positions in the U.S. depending on the sector, yet little is known about
their learning needs and strategies. The research questions asked how these
women executives learned to develop successfully in their positions and what
informal learning strategies they used. This study explored the perspectives of 22
women executives of philanthropic organizations in South Florida and Western
Washington. The foundations represented by the participants varied widely in
size, purpose, and structure. The study yields evidence that learning and leading are inextricably
connected. There is also evidence that learning needs and learning strategies
change over the course of one's career. They use a variety of learning resources
including mentors, workshops, and resources such as books, journals and the
internet. Early strategies include training and mentoring. Later strategies refine
conceptual skills through conversations with colleagues. Discussion includes
implications for executive development programs and recommendations for
practice and further research.

The following document offers a qualitative case study in the field of adult and
community education from an educational leadership perspective using baseball as an
adult learning tool. Relevant existing theories (adult education, lifelong learning, adult
learners, and certain leadership practices) for successful facilitation of historical baseball
research were examined. The study focused on a purposeful sample population upon
which a pilot study was conducted, revealing the experiences of adult self-directed
learners who produce the seminal work in their field as an avocation. The findings of this
study included, but are not limited to, the passionate approach the study group members
have for their subject matter, their love of learning, and the self-directedness of nonformally
trained research historians using baseball as an adult learning tool. The findings
also revealed the group members belief in the academic worthiness of baseball history,
and their willingness to share their work with others to advance the field.

The percentage of older adults in the American population is expected to
increase from about 12% now to 22% by the year 2030 (Eisen, 2005). Educators can
play an important role in managing the effec.,ts of this demographic shift by designing
learning opportunities that increase older adults' motivation to participate and their
ability to learn. Because older adults themselves can otTer important insights on what
helps and hinders their learning, the purpose of this study was to explore the
perceptions of adults over age 64 residing in a large metropolitan area in the
southeastern United States on effective and ineffective learning experiences.
Utilizing a qualitative design, the researcher interviewed 36 older adults
involved in learning experiences at three distinct sites. Data were also collected
through observations and document analysis. Five research questions were answered with the following four findings: 1) effective learning experiences are involving, 2)
the instructor is a key component in the classroom, 3) familiar or relevant topics are
interesting, and 4) the computer and the Internet are both loved and hated. The
participants in this study value learning experiences that involve them in the
classroom and keep them involved in the world. They enjoy asking questions,
discussing ideas, and learning with friends and family members in environments free
from the pressures of mandatory assignments and tests. They seek instructors who
are knowledgeable about the subject, clear and understandable in their presentation,
respectful of their experience, and effective at grabbing their attention through
enthusiasm, humor, and relevant stories. When they discover effective instructors,
they tend to take classes with them over and over again. However. when instructors'
abilities are unknown, they look for learning experiences that will either expand their
knowledge abcut something familiar or teach them something that will have some
relevance in their lives. Finally, these seniors enjoy the convenience of accessing a
wealth of information using computers and the Internet. Yet, they also experience
considerable frustration in learning computer tasks and dealing with computer
problems. Reommendations are provided for designing, marketing, and delivering
quality learning experiences for senior adults.

Community colleges serve as conduits for students as they make the transition
between secondary school and college. Community colleges also have a unique place in
the American education system as they serve a large number of non-traditional students.
The open-door policy of community colleges gives students the opportunity to pursue a
college education. However, not all students who enroll in community colleges are
academically prepared for college-level courses.
A comprehensive literature review in the areas of community college,
developmental education, mathematics education, and the connection between language
and mathematics was conducted. Based on the results of the literature review, this study
examined a population of students who placed into all three developmental education subjects when they enrolled at the community college based on their Computerized
Placement Test (CPT) scores.
In the first part of the study, the researcher studied the relationship between
reading level and success rate in developmental mathematics courses. In the second part,
the researcher used a logistic regression model to predict success in developmental
mathematics courses based on CPT scores in math, reading, and writing, as well as
ethnicity, gender, age, traditional college student status, limited English proficiency, and
enrollment status.
Results from the study revealed that the order in which developmental reading
courses and developmental mathematics courses are taken does make a difference in the
success rate of students in their developmental mathematics courses. There is a
significant relationship between reading level and success rate in developmental
mathematics courses for students who take reading before or at the same time as
mathematics. A logistics regression model with four significant variables was created to
predict success in developmental mathematics courses greater than chance.
This study can assist counselors in placing students in the correct developmental
mathematics course when they enroll in the community college. It further gives
administrators the opportunity to evaluate current placement policy in developmental
mathematics courses based on the order in which the courses are taken and CPT cutoff
scores. This study also proposes recommendations and further research in the area of
developmental mathematics education.

This study attempted the answer to two primary questions: (a) Are strategic thinking skills possessed by college students prior to university matriculation related to their academic success in college, and (b) How does the predictive accuracy afforded by these skills compare to that from high school grade point average or standardized test scores?

Affecting one in every 68 children, Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is one
of the fastest growing developmental disabilities. Scientific research has proven that
early behavioral intervention can improve learning, communication, and social skills.
Similarly, studies have shown that the usage of of-the-shelf technology boosts
motivation in children diagnosed with ASD while increasing their attention span and
ability to interact socially. Embracing perspectives from different fields of study can
lead to the development of an effective tool to complement traditional treatment
of those with ASD. This thesis documents the re-engineering, extension, and evolu-
tion of Ying, an existing web application designed to aid in the learning of autistic
children. The original methodology of Ying combines expertise from other research
areas including developmental psychology, semantic learning, and computer science.
In this work, Ying is modifed to incorporate aspects of traditional treatment, such
as Applied Behavior Analysis. Using cutting-edge software technology in areas like
voice recognition and mobile device applications, this project aspires to use software
engineering approaches and audio-visual interaction with the learner to enhance social behavior and reinforce verbal communication skills in children with ASD, while
detecting and storing learning patterns for later study.