Sex (Psychology)

Although researchers agree that humans exhibit behavioral sex differences, there
remains controversy over whether these sex differences are socially constructed or
are the product of divergent evolutionary selection pressures on the psychologies
of men and women. Through four studies, this dissertation presents evidence that
behavioral sex differences have their origin in divergent evolutionary selection
pressures and that these sex differences lead to conflict between the sexes. The
first two studies investigate a type of sexual infidelity known as human mate
poaching. The third study investigates the use of physical attractiveness as a tactic
to persuade opposite-sex individuals. The fourth study documents expressions of
hypothesized evolved psychological sex differences and sexual conflict in the
lyrics of songs from hip-hop artists. The final chapter considers a social constructivist account for the origin of behavioral sex differences and argues that
an evolutionary psychological account has greater explanatory power.

In past gender identity research, little attention has been paid to the determinants
of the various dimensions of gender identity (felt pressure for gender differentiation,
gender contentedness, and within-gender typicality). This study examined whether
children’s self-perceptions and social behaviors influence changes in gender identity over time. One hundred and ninety-five fourth- through seventh-graders completed self-report and peer-report questionnaires during the fall and spring of a school year. This study found that both felt pressure for gender differentiation and within-gender typicality are fluid, rather than stable, constructs during childhood. It also found that sex plays a
significant role in not only which constructs influence gender identity, but which
components of gender identity are influenced.

Action identification theory asserts that people undertake action with a particular identity for what they are doing, and that this identity is resistant to change. Emergence of a new understanding of action occurs when the person thinks about some detail of the action and is then exposed to a new higher level identity for the act. To test the emergence hypothesis with respect to sexual behavior, subjects were asked to think about having sex and list either the high level aspects (i.e., consequences and implications of having sex) or lower level aspects (i.e., details of having sex). Subjects then read an article identifying sex as responsible behavior or physical pleasure. As predicted, subjects induced to think about the act of having sex in terms of its details expressed their cognitive representation of the act in a way which conformed with the target emergent identity (pleasure or responsibility) to which they were exposed.

Over 90% of men and women marry, but as many as 50% of married men and women have affairs. Thus, in a self-report study of ideal mating arrangements, in which costs associated with infidelity are eliminated, it was hypothesized that men and women would prefer a mating arrangement of monogamy with the option of casual, extra-pair sex. Unexpectedly, men and women (N = 463) overwhelmingly preferred strictly monogamous mating arrangements when forced to select one such ideal arrangement. A hypothesized sex difference did emerge, however, with men more than women rating as more interesting those arrangements that included casual sex or partner variety. Discussion addresses several evolutionarily plausible accounts for the current results and integrates the current results with existing theories about sex differences and similarities in mating psychology and behavior.

Mate poaching occurs when an individual has sexual relations with the romantic partner of another. In Study A, I investigated the prevalence of mate poaching by presenting participants with questions whose devising was informed by a stricter definition of mate poaching than that employed by earlier studies. As expected, relative to participants in earlier studies, the current participants reported fewer experiences of mate poaching. In Study B, I investigated the likelihood that the benefits and costs of mate poaching will, respectively, motivate participants to poach or will deter them from doing so. Results indicated that for males and females to be motivated to poach, the attached individual must be more attractive than the unattached individual.