Perry, David G.

Chronic victimization by peers sometimes fosters aggression in children (Dodge, 2011; Hodges &
Perry, 1999). Recent data suggest that cross-gender victimization is more common in girls during
middle childhood (Benbenishty, & Astor, 2005). That is, girls are picked on by boys at a proportionally
higher rate than boys are picked on by girls. However, the possibility that enduring cognitive structures
moderate effects of victimization on aggression—by serving as processing filters through which children
perceive, interpret, and respond to the adverse experiences—remains unexplored. In this study, we
assessed whether victimization experiences at the hands of the other sex increased aggression over
the school year. We measured peer-nominated aggression toward the other sex and victimization by
the other sex in 195 children (94 girls, 101 boys; M age 10.1 years). We also examined self-reported
inhibition of emotions as a possible moderator. Results suggest that aggression did not increase over
time if boys were victimized by other boys, but the more that boys were victimized by girls, the more
their aggression increased girls’ aggression was unaffected by victimization by peers of either sex as a
main effect. However, inhibition of emotions moderated the effect of victimization on aggression in both
sexes. Thus, the experience of being victimized by the other sex led to an increase in aggression
toward the other sex only when inhibition of emotions was high, rather than low. These findings
highlight the importance of examining interactive models that contribute to aggression in children.

The goal of this study was to test the gender self-socialization model (GSSM). This
model suggests that gender identity motivates children to strive for cognitive consistency
between their gender stereotypes and their self-efficacy for those stereotypes. This study
presents a novel approach to stereotype assessment by focusing on children's
idiosyncratic stereotypes (as opposed to number of commonly shared stereotypes, which
do not provide detailed information about the types of stereotypes individual children
hold). Participants were 305 children in grades three through eight (Mage = 10.8 years).
Independent variables included children's stereotypes of 62 contextually tagged
behaviors and gender identity (comprising five dimensions). Interactive influences of
children's stereotypes and gender identity on self-efficacy were investigated. As
expected, stereotypes and gender identity worked together to predict children's self-efficacy perception for the 62 behaviors. These findings suggest that the role of gender
identity is important in the adoption of personally held gender stereotypes.

A conceptualization of maternal attachment during
preadolescence was proposed, and a self-report instrument
designed to measure preadolescents' maternal attachment
style was developed. It was hypothesized that
preadolescents' attachment style is related to their social
adjustment with peers. Subjects were 229 third through
seventh graders. Results indicated that avoidant
preadolescent girls were seen by peers as demonstrating
externalizing behaviors with peers. Also, the more avoidant
the girls were, the more enemies they had. Preoccupied
preadolescent boys were viewed by peers as exhibiting
internalizing behaviors: These boys were seen as victimized,
immature, depressed, fearful, and physically weak. In
contrast, avoidant boys were perceived as aggressive,
dishonest, and physically strong.

The purpose of this thesis was to see how sexist beliefs in childhood relate to
indexes of children's personal and social adjustment. We developed an instrument to
study the sexist beliefs that children have regarding work, parenting, dating, and other
aspects of gender roles. We predicted (and found) that having these sexist beliefs
affected the sexes differently. For girls sexist beliefs were associated with reduced global
self-worth and body satisfaction; and increased depression. For boys, sexist beliefs were
associated with increased global self-worth, narcissism, externalizing behaviors, and
competence in sports; and decreased depression and prosocial behavior.

Some, but not all, children who experience rejection or victimization by peers develop aggressive habits in response. This dissertation study tested the hypothesis that children who possess demonstration self-guides—cognitive structures that motivate a child to display behaviors and attributes that bring attention, admiration, or subservience from peers—are particularly at risk for such aggressive reactions. Children with such self-guides, it is suggested, experience adverse treatment by peers as particularly frustrating, humiliating, and shameful, and these reactions increase the children’s threshold for exhibiting aggression during peer interactions. Participants were 195 children in the fourth through seventh grades of a school serving an ethnically and racially diverse student population (94 girls and 101 boys; M age = 10.1 years). Children completed self- and peer-report questionnaires in the fall and spring of a school year. Measures included rejection and victimization by peers, demonstration self-guides (narcissism, self-efficacy for demonstration attributes, felt pressure for gender conformity, and sexist ideology), aggression toward peers, and other variables testing secondary hypotheses. Consistent with the focal hypothesis, children with demonstration self-guides were more likely than other children to increase their aggression following peer rejection or victimization. However, this result was more common for girls than for boys; for boys, increased aggression more often reflected additive rather than interactive effects of peer rejection/victimization and demonstration motivation. Support for the focal hypothesis also depended on additional moderator variables, including gender of the peer group rejecting or victimizing the child, the nature of the demonstration self-guide, and gender of the target of the child’s own aggression.

The current study examined the possibility of using cluster analysis to classify attachment styles in middle childhood. Attachment classifications were measured by looking at child coping strategies and perceived maternal behavior. The attachment classification was then tested for construct validity by examining whether it can predict adjustment outcomes in interpretable patterns. The adjustment outcomes examined were a self-reported global self-worth scale and peer-reported internalizing and externalizing behaviors measured using a Peer Nomination Inventory. The current study had 199 third through eight graders and provided evidence for the cluster analysis approach and also showed that the disorganized attachment was associated with the most adverse adjustment outcomes. That is, results showed that disorganized attachment was linked with the lowest levels of global self-worth and the highest rates of internalizing and externalizing behaviors and was significantly different from the securely attached cluster on each measure. The implications and possible underlying causes are discussed.

A self-discrepancy is a cognitive incompatibility between a conception of the desired self and the perception of the actual self (Higgins, 1987; Rogers & Dymond, 1954). The purpose of this dissertation is to gain a better understanding of the effects of gender self-discrepancies on the personal and social adjustment of preadolescent children. I propose that gender-related stereotypes and self-appraisals can be examined within a self-discrepancy framework. Preadolescent children (N=195) completed a variety of self- and peer-report questionnaires in the fall and spring of the school year. Children reported gender stereotypes and self-appraisals for four attributes (body image, athletics, dominance, and popularity). Measures of gender identity and of adjustment were also collected. Results suggested that children who possess a gender self discrepancy are at risk for maladjustment, especially internalizing difficulties and
victimization by both girls and boys.

In past gender identity research, little attention has been paid to the determinants
of the various dimensions of gender identity (felt pressure for gender differentiation,
gender contentedness, and within-gender typicality). This study examined whether
children’s self-perceptions and social behaviors influence changes in gender identity over time. One hundred and ninety-five fourth- through seventh-graders completed self-report and peer-report questionnaires during the fall and spring of a school year. This study found that both felt pressure for gender differentiation and within-gender typicality are fluid, rather than stable, constructs during childhood. It also found that sex plays a
significant role in not only which constructs influence gender identity, but which
components of gender identity are influenced.

The purpose of this study was to explore relations between children's temperament and their coping styles during mother-child conflict. The children in this study (47 boys and 59 girls in the fourth through seventh grades) were measured using maternal reports of nine discrete temperament dimensions. These nine dimensions were reduced to three factors labeled Agreeableness, Rhythmicity, and Restraint. The children also reported on seven dimensions of coping during conflict with their mothers. Factor analysis indicated that these seven dimensions also could be reduced to two factors, labeled Defiant Coping and Helpless Coping. Partial correlations (with the effect of age removed) showed a significant negative relation between Agreeable temperament (e.g., approachable, high mood quality) and Helpless Coping (e.g., fearful, compulsive compliance).

The present study examines whether one aspect of problematic adjustment--poor self-concept--contributes to victimization, is a consequence of victimization, or both. A sample of 187 third- through seventh-grade children were tested in both the fall and spring of the academic year on four self-report, self-concept measures: (a) global self-esteem, (b) social self-esteem, (c) self-efficacy for assertion, and (d) self-efficacy for aggression. At both times of testing, children also reported classmates who manifested both victimized and aggressive behaviors. Results indicated that social self-esteem and self-efficacy were both antecedents of victimization even after controlling for T1 levels of victimization. Social self-esteem was also an outcome of victimization after controlling for T1 levels of social self-esteem. A secondary consideration of the research was to investigate whether poor self-concept is predictive or an outcome of aggression, and results are discussed. Theoretical explanations for the specific relations found are advanced.