Cooper, Patrick J.

Chronic victimization by peers sometimes fosters aggression in children (Dodge, 2011; Hodges &
Perry, 1999). Recent data suggest that cross-gender victimization is more common in girls during
middle childhood (Benbenishty, & Astor, 2005). That is, girls are picked on by boys at a proportionally
higher rate than boys are picked on by girls. However, the possibility that enduring cognitive structures
moderate effects of victimization on aggression—by serving as processing filters through which children
perceive, interpret, and respond to the adverse experiences—remains unexplored. In this study, we
assessed whether victimization experiences at the hands of the other sex increased aggression over
the school year. We measured peer-nominated aggression toward the other sex and victimization by
the other sex in 195 children (94 girls, 101 boys; M age 10.1 years). We also examined self-reported
inhibition of emotions as a possible moderator. Results suggest that aggression did not increase over
time if boys were victimized by other boys, but the more that boys were victimized by girls, the more
their aggression increased girls’ aggression was unaffected by victimization by peers of either sex as a
main effect. However, inhibition of emotions moderated the effect of victimization on aggression in both
sexes. Thus, the experience of being victimized by the other sex led to an increase in aggression
toward the other sex only when inhibition of emotions was high, rather than low. These findings
highlight the importance of examining interactive models that contribute to aggression in children.

A self-discrepancy is a cognitive incompatibility between a conception of the desired self and the perception of the actual self (Higgins, 1987; Rogers & Dymond, 1954). The purpose of this dissertation is to gain a better understanding of the effects of gender self-discrepancies on the personal and social adjustment of preadolescent children. I propose that gender-related stereotypes and self-appraisals can be examined within a self-discrepancy framework. Preadolescent children (N=195) completed a variety of self- and peer-report questionnaires in the fall and spring of the school year. Children reported gender stereotypes and self-appraisals for four attributes (body image, athletics, dominance, and popularity). Measures of gender identity and of adjustment were also collected. Results suggested that children who possess a gender self discrepancy are at risk for maladjustment, especially internalizing difficulties and
victimization by both girls and boys.

The fact that 45% of boys and 32% of girls in the United States participate in youth sports suggests that sports participation might be an important influence on children's psychosocial development. This study explored: (1) how children's gender cognitions influence sports self-efficacy and (2) how sports self-efficacy influences children's psychosocial adjustment. Results suggest that for boys, felt pressure to conform to gender standards and the belief that sports is important for boys influence sports self-efficacy. In girls, both the belief that sports is important for girls and the belief that sports is important for boys predicted sports self-efficacy. Sports self-efficacy predicted benefits for girls adjustment (high self-esteem, higher body satisfaction, lower depression and lower anxiety) but both positive and negative outcomes for boys (higher narcissism, higher aggression, and lower depression and lower anxiety). The findings overall suggest that the correlates of sports self-efficacy are somewhat different for boys and for girls.