Menon, Meenakshi

A gender self-socialization model was conceptualized, wherein gender identity and idiographic gender stereotypes conjointly influence children's adoption of gendered behavior (i.e., gender typing). Further, children differ in their beliefs of sex differences as immutable versus fluid (entity vs. incremental theory); and it was hypothesized that entity beliefs would moderate the self-socialization process. Children (N=305, M age 10.8 years) responded to gender identity, gender stereotype, and self-efficacy measures. Two kinds of gender typing were computed. Personal gender typing was the correlation between personal stereotypes and self-efficacy; consensus gender typing was the correlation between the same-sex peer stereotypes and self-efficacy. Results indicated that gender typicality and gender contentedness were associated with personal gender typing, and felt pressure against other-gender behavior was related to consensus gender typing. Entity theory strengthened the relation between gender identity and gender typing. Results support the self-socialization model.

This one-year longitudinal study was designed to illuminate the direction of the causal arrow between children's perceptions of their mother's behavior and children's attachment style during a period of development that has been relatively neglected in research on attachment - preadolescence. The possibility that children's behavior problems moderate the influence of perceived parenting on attachment, or of attachment on perceived parenting, was also investigated. Participants were an ethnically diverse sample of 407 children (213 girls, 194 boys) who were in the fourth grade at initial testing (M age = 11 years 1 month). Measures included children's perceptions of five maternal behaviors (harassment, overprotectiveness, monitoring, affectionate contact, and reliable support), peer reports of children's behavior problems (internalizing and externalizing), and children's self-perceived attachment styles (preoccupied and avoidant). Contrary to a traditional attachment perspective, there was limited evidence that perceptions of parenting led to change in children's attachment styles. Though children with internalizing problems who perceived their mother as harassing developed preoccupied attachment over time, and children with externalizing problems who perceived their mother as v overprotective developed avoidant attachment over time. However, there was considerable support for the reverse causal hypothesis that children's attachment style influences how they perceive their mother: Preoccupied attachment predicted increasingly favorable perceptions of maternal behavior over time (reduced harassment and increased monitoring), whereas avoidant attachment predicted increasingly unfavorable perceptions of the mother over time (increased harassment, reduced monitoring, reduced affectionate contact, and reduced reliable support). Children's behavior problems moderated a few of these relations.